Changes in Canada

Lastly, in 1905 the 9th and 10th provinces were added in which were Alberta and Saskatchewan (All Website 1 and 2) which are colored red. As you can see a lot of changes had happened during hose 38 years but we have yet to discuss Unapt which was created in 1999. Canada now has 10 provinces and 3 territories. Canada has been through many changes for it to become the great country it is now. Stronger and Better Canada The Confederation and the changes that had happened to Canada had a positive effect on Canada.A large effect the Confederation had on Canada Is on the economy and Canada's social structure. This lead to Canada being a strong country as It Is today. The Confederation helped with transportation problems. All the colonies were Joined to make one whole country to spend less money on International railway systems. This saved tons of money (Website 3 and 5). The railway also helped with Canada's defenses and soldiers. If a colony was under attack they could easily send soldier s on the railway systems throughout Canada. Secondly, the Confederation mainly helped Canada's economy.Economy In any country Is Important, and Canada's economy Is great compared to most countries. External trade at this time was not working too well, so Canada had to rely on International trade. New railway systems created in this process, because External trade was not working, Canada had to rely on its farmers and manufactures (Website 4). Canada's rose, causing the creation of ore and more Jobs as the years progressed. Industrialization was becoming more common as Canada started to grow. This resulted in arbitration.Finally, the Confederation created an organized government; because of a more organized government more laws were able to be set. One important thing that was done was equal rights. The Constitution allowed First Nations, women and blacks to be heard in parliament, as their voices were not heard until the early sass (HUH). Canada many important pull factors and attra cted many immigrants during the sass. The government started to give out land for these immigrants to settle, immigration is important for Canada as our economy is stable and there are many Job opportunities (HUH-96).In 1999 Unapt Joined the confederation making it Canada's 3rd and last territory. It was created to give Intuit people more freedom (HUH). In conclusion the Confederation helped Canada develop to where it is now; it is an important part of Canadian history. The Confederation created a more organized government system for laws to be passed, transportation problems to cut down on prices for railroads and making trade more efficient. Now we know how Canada became such a great and successful country.

Friedrich Froebel, Founder of Kindergarten Essay

Friedrich Froebel was a German educator of the nineteenth century who developed an Idealist philosophy of early childhood education. He established kindergarten and education for four and five-year-old children. Kindergarten is now a part of education worldwide. Friedrich Froebel was born in the small town of Oberwiessbach, Germany in 1782. His mother died when he was a baby. His father remarried, but Froebel never liked his stepmother. His feeling of rejection and isolation remained with him for life. This had a strong effect on his theory of early childhood education. He believed the kindergarten teacher should be loving, kind and motherly. Froebel also had an unsatisfactory relationship with his father which, along with his shyness, caused him to be â€Å"introspective and socially inept† (Gutek, 2005, p. 261). Therefore, he wanted his kindergarten to â€Å"foster a sense of emotional security and self-esteem in children† (Gutek, 2005, p. 261). At the age of ten, Froebel went to live with his uncle. As a young child, Froebel spent a lot of time playing in the garden around his home. This led to his love of nature and had a profound effect on his educational philosophy. When he was fifteen years old, Froebel apprenticed with a forester and surveyor and studied forestry, geometry and surveying in school. He briefly attended the University of Jena from 1800-1802. Then he studied architecture at Frankfurt University. Although he ended his studies without receiving a degree, Froebel gained a sense of artistic perspective and symmetry he later used to design his kindergarten â€Å"gifts† and â€Å"occupations. † While in Frankfurt Froebel was hired as a teacher at the Frankfurt Model School, which was a Pestalozzian school. He studied the Pestalozzi method of instruction which emphasized using objects to teach. His method rejected the use of corporal punishment and emphasized respecting the dignity of children. This method of teaching very much appealed to Froebel. Froebel wanted to incorporate Pestalozzi’s method and creation of a loving and secure environment for children in his own teaching methods. After teaching at the Model School for three years, Froebel studied with Pestalozzi for two more years Froebel also decided to study languages and science at the University of G? ttingen. He wanted to identify linguistic structures that could be used in language instruction. During this time he became very interested in geology and mineralogy, and also pursued this in his studies. Froebel believed that the process of crystallization (moving from the simple to the complex) emulated a â€Å"universal cosmic law that also governed human growth and development† (Net Industries, 2008, Biography section,  ¶ 3). He would later incorporate the geometric shapes and formations in crystals to create his kindergarten â€Å"gifts. † In 1816, Froebel started a school in Griesheim called the Universal German Educational Institute. He enrolled students who were 7 years old or older. The school eventually moved to Keilhau. The school remained opened until 1829 when it struggled and was forced to close. However, Froebel was able to test and develop some of his educational ideas in his school. In 1818 Froebel married Henrietta Hoffmeister. She shared Froebel’s love of children and assisted in his educational work until her death. Froebel established an educational institute at Wartenese in 1831. Later, he was invited to establish an orphanage at Burgdorf. Here he conducted a school for the town children and a boarding school for those who lived away. He trained teachers and established a nursery school for 3 and 4 year olds. He developed songs, rhymes, games, physical exercises and other activities for the nursery school. He experimented with the objects and other materials that eventually became his kindergarten gifts. He also stressed play and its role in education. In 1837, at the age of 55, Froebel relocated to Blankenburg and established a new type of school for early childhood education. He called it â€Å"kindergarten,† or â€Å"the children’s garden† (Smith, 1999,  ¶ 5). This word expressed Froebel’s vision for early childhood education: â€Å"Children are like tiny flowers; they are varied and need care, but each is beautiful alone and glorious when seen in the community of peers† (Smith, 1999,  ¶ 6). He used play, songs, stories, and activities to establish an educational environment in which children, by their own activity, could learn and develop. According to Froebel, this meant that children, in their development, would learn to follow the â€Å"divinely established laws of human growth through their own activity† (Net Industries, 2008, Biography section,  ¶ 5). This is where he used his kindergarten gifts and occupations. â€Å"Gifts were objects Froebel believed had special symbolic potential. Occupations were the raw materials children could use in drawing and building activities that allowed them to concretize their ideas† (Gutek, 2005, p. 265). Froebel became famous as an early childhood educator in Germany and by 1848, forty-four kindergartens were operating in Germany. Froebel began training young women as kindergarten teachers. Kindergarten achieved its greatest influence in the United States. It was brought to America by the Germans after the European Revolution of 1848. Kindergartens appeared wherever there was a large concentration of German immigrants. Henry Barnard, the first United States Commissioner of Education, introduced Froebel’s kindergarten into educational literature in the 1850’s by including it in the American Journal of Education, of which he was the editor. He also recommended to Congress that a public school system be established for the District of Columbia that would include kindergartens. In 1873, William Torrey Harris established a kindergarten at a school in St. Louis, Missouri and incorporated it into the public school system. This event led to more public schools incorporating kindergartens into their systems. Eventually, Harris became the U. S. Commissioner of Education and he continued to press for the incorporation of kindergartens into public school systems throughout the United States. Before Froebel started his kindergarten, children under the age of seven did not attend school as it was believed that these young children did not have the ability to develop the cognitive and emotional skills needed to learn in a school environment. However, Froebel believed in early childhood education: â€Å"because learning begins when consciousness erupts, education must also† (Pioneers, 2000,  ¶ 7). In his book, Education of Man, Froebel states the idealist themes of his philosophy: â€Å"(1) all existence originates in and with God; (2) humans possess an inherent spiritual essence that is the vitalizing life force that causes development; (3) all beings and ideas are interconnected parts of a grand, ordered, and systematic universe† (Net Industries, 2008, Froebel’s Kindergarten Philosophy section,  ¶ 1). This is what Froebel based his work on, claiming that each child had an â€Å"internal spiritual essence – a life force† (Net Industries, 2008, Froebel’s Kindergarten Philosophy section,  ¶ 1). This life force seeks to be manifested through self-activity. He also believed that â€Å"child development follows the doctrine of preformation, the unfolding of that which was present latently in the individual† (Net Industries, 2008, Froebel’s Kindergarten Philosophy section,  ¶ 1). Froebel’s kindergarten created a special educational environment in which this self-activity and development occurred. Froebel used his kindergarten gifts, occupations, social and cultural activities, and especially play to promote this self-activity. Froebel also believed that children were to learn that they were members of â€Å"a great universal, spiritual community† (Gutek, 2005, p. 266). Thus the use of games and social activities. According to Froebel, play was essential to educating the young child. He believed that through engaging with the world, understanding would develop. That is why play was so critical – it is a creative activity through which children become aware of their place in the world and the world around them. Education was to be based on each child’s interests and spontaneous activity. The kindergarten teacher’s job was to create an environment that would stimulate the child’s development. She was also to create a safe, secure environment that prevented anything from disturbing this process. It was essential to the kindergarten children’s progress that the teacher did not hinder the child’s free play and individuality. Each child would learn what he was ready to learn when he was ready to learn it. As Froebel states: â€Å"Education in instruction and training, originally and in its first principles, should necessarily be passive, following (only guarding and protecting), not prescriptive, categorical, interfering† (Sniegoski, 1994, p. 8). Froebel believed the kindergarten should have a pleasant physical environment. He recommended the use of an adjoining garden or a brightly painted room with plants, animals and pictures. This should also be a prepared environment which would provide the teacher with the proper tools which the teacher felt would be most beneficial to the learning environment. And instead of traditional books, the kindergarten should teach using geometrical play objects of different shapes, sizes and colors (â€Å"gifts†). He also believed in symbolism and that if a child played with the â€Å"gifts,† they would help the child to understand fundamental truths. Froebel’s gifts consisted of: six soft colored balls; a wooden sphere, cube, and cylinder; a large cube divided into eight smaller cubes; a large cube divided into eight oblong blocks; a large cube divided into twenty-one whole, six half, and twelve quarter cubes; a large cube divided into eighteen whole oblongs with three divided lengthwise and three divided breadthwise; quadrangular and triangular tablets used for arranging figures; sticks for outlining figures; wire rings for outlining figures; various materials for drawing, perforating, embroidering, paper cutting, weaving or braiding, paper folding, modeling, and interlacing. (Net Industries, 2008, The Kindergarten Curriculum section,  ¶ 1). Also, Froebel designed â€Å"occupations† to be used in the kindergarten. These allowed more freedom and were things that children could shape and manipulate. Examples of â€Å"occupations† are string, sand, clay, and beads. As always, there was an underlying meaning in all that was done in Froebel’s kindergarten. â€Å"Even clean up time was seen as a reminder to the child of God’s plan for moral and social order† (Nichols, n. d. , Occupations section,  ¶ 1). Froebel’s careful study of the nature of children and their part in the world continues to be of great importance, as it opened a door to a new world in childhood education. Froebel attached importance to what â€Å"originated in children, not merely what adults gave them to do or learn† (Sniegoski, 1994, p. 15). He also discovered the educational value of play and the use of new non-book, hands-on materials in teaching children. Froebel provided a â€Å"theoretical basis for early childhood education that recognized stages of intellectual growth† (Sniegoski, 1994, p. 15). The one aspect of Froebel’s theories that has disappeared for the most part is the mysterious symbolism that overcastted his educational philosophy. However, his ideals of freeing children to develop according to their own interests and needs and giving them a bright, playful, nurturing environment in which to learn remains an important and vital part of early childhood education today. References Gutek, Gerald Lee. (2005). Friedrich Froebel: Founder of the kindergarten. In Historical and philosophical foundations of education: a biographical introduction (4th ed. ) (pp. 256-273). Upper Sadle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc. Lucas, Bill. (2005, October 24). Studying the creation of kindergarten. In Boxes and Arrows: The Design Behind the Design, July, 2008. Retrieved July 12, 2008, from http://www. boxesandarrows. com/view/studying_the_creation_of_kindergarten. Net Industries. (2008). Friedrich Froebel (1782-1852): Biography, Froebel’s kindergarten philosophy, the kindergarten curriculum, diffusion of the kindergarten. In Education Encyclopedia. Retrieved July 10, 2008, from http://education. stateuniversity. com/pages/1999/ Froebel-Friedrich-1782-1852. html. Nichols, Rachel. (n. d. ). Friedrich Froebel: Founder of the first kindergarten. Retrieved July 11, 2008 from http://hubpages. com/hub/ Friedrich-Froebel-Founder-of-the-First-Kindergarten. Pioneers in our field: Friedrich Froebel: Founder of the first kindergarten [Electronic version]. (2000). Scholastic: Early Childhood Today, August, 2000. Retrieved July 11, 2008 from http://www2. scholastic. com/browse/article. jsp? id=3442. Smith, Mark K. (1997). Friedrich Froebel. Retrieved July 12, 2008 from http://www. infed. org/thinkers/et-froeb. htm. Sniegoski, Stephen. (1994). Froebel and early childhood education in America. Retrieved July 12, 2008 from the Educational Resources Information Center Web site: http://www. eric. ed. gov/ERICDOCS/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/ 00000196/80/14/19/02. pdf.

Marketing ad Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Marketing ad - Assignment Example The leading title article is about Lady Gaga and is only related indirectly to the advertisement as the advertisement incorporates reference to music. The advertisement is directed at seemingly young individuals who are both socially conscious and interested in music. This is clear as the ice cream can in the advertisement is being utilized as a stage with the music festival Bonnarroo being prominently featured on a sign within the advertisement. The advertisement asks the reader to simply appreciate the ice cream’s image, and later purchase the ice cream over other ice creams. While there are no other ice cream advertisements, there are there are other advertisements competing for the reader’s attention. Unconsciously I made comparisons between these ads based on a visually or stimulating appealing nature. To me it appears to be a good investment as the ice cream looks delicious and the owners of the company have a positive image. References Rolling Stone. (2011) Issue 1131, May 26th

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How did the womens rights movement of the 19th century emerge out of abolition activism - Essay Example The history to acquisition of rights to vote in America intertwines with the American women acquiring other rights as well. The major pioneers of American enfranchisement include Lucretia Mott, Susan B. Anthony and Chapman Catt among others. The women considered the suffrage as their number one priority since the moment they are granted the right to vote, and then other rights would have followed (Cappiello 56). In the United States, women suffrage was attained gradually at both state and local levels during the 19th century, and culminated from the passage on the constitution that stated that right to vote by citizens in United States was not to be denied by the state on basis of sex. On June 1848, liberty party comprised of entirely men. In 1850s, Women Rights Convention under leadership of Lucy stone organized suffrage petition campaigns for women in various states. Stone was the first person to make appeals for women suffrage before law makers. In 1853, she addressed Massachusetts Constitutional Convention. However, agitation was suspended during Civil War but in 1865, everything resumed as the National Women Rights committee petitioned to the congress to amend the constitution so as to prohibit states from the move towards disfranchising the citizens on basis of sex. This triggered a disagreement among the movement leaders on whether to support the ratification of 15th amendment that gave a vote to black men and ignored black women. This enhanced formation of rival organizations that campaigned for amendment that gave the women the right to vote at both local and national levels. However, the two groups led by Lucy Stone and Susan Anthony merged to form the American Women Suffrage Association in 1889. The movemen t campaigned for reforms for the progressive era (Cappiello 57). Women who took part in early abolitionist movement started demanding for equality in rights, both in their experiences and general

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International Business Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words - 3

International Business Management - Essay Example Other factors that influence decision making in international business include; differences in legal systems, the existence of trade barriers between nation states and the differences in the distribution of human and natural resources between different countries. Apart from the above factors that limit the free operations and policy making decisions of international business manager, the principles of management remain fairly the same. Factors affecting international business can be classified as cultural, political and economic. Political events are of great concern because they influence; the cost of doing business, the social and economic stability of countries and accessibility to human and non-human resources. Politics also have a safety and security implications and transfer of payments (Whiting 2010). The British monitor manufacturing company under the management of Tony considered factors such as cost but failed majorly in considering the economic stability of Latin America which hugely cost them after the inflation in Latin America. International business may be limited by national economies which are relatively self contained entities isolated from each other by barriers to cross border trade and investment. Other limitations include distance, time zones, differences in national government trade regulations and cultural differences. However, the world is moving towards diminishing trade and investment barriers. This is due to advances in transportation and telecommunication technology. Tony’s company had no challenges in transportation of their goods which enabled easy exports to farther countries. The British company outsourced cheap monitors from Asia which indirectly exploited the cheap labor in Asia. This globalization led to loss of jobs and incomes in Britain evident in the British monitor manufacturing company which reduced its employees in the manufacturing sector. Unstable

Fact Paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

Fact Paper - Essay Example Research outcomes show that more than â€Å"two thirds of children aged 8 year† use computers daily (Lucile Packard Foundation, 2000). This is because of the current high accessibility of computers. Its continued usage by children negatively affects their health. Studies show a positive correlation between obesity and the usage of computers. A study conducted in Australia revealed that children who spend more time on computers have a 2.5 percent chance of becoming obese (Subrahmanyam, Kraut, Greenfield et al, 2000). The rate of obesity among children is increasing in the US. One of the factors that contribute to the high rate includes the high usage of computers among other causes. Spending more time on computers implies that children are spending less time in physical activities. Physical activities are important because they help children to burn excess calories. Engaging in less physical activities leads to accumulation of fats and calories in children’s bodies which in turn leads to obesity. Obese children have higher chances of developing other health complications even in their adulthood. For instance, medical experts claim that children with obesity are at a higher risk of getting cardiovascular diseases and being diabetic in their adulthood. Apart from obesity spending more time online can damage the children’s eyes. It also makes them to strain their necks and shoulders. Since children are still developing, some of the effects can lead to long-term health issues. Moreover, technology addiction makes some children to have sleeping disorders. This especially occurs if children have computers in their rooms. Some children prefer shortening their sleeping hours in order to play games or chat with their friends online. If this takes place for a longer period, it disrupts children’s sleeping patterns that may in turn cause sleeping disorders such as

Strategic and competitive positioning of Lenovo Essay

Strategic and competitive positioning of Lenovo - Essay Example In relation to the study the company which has been selected is Lenovo group, a multinational IT firm with headquarters in Beijing, China and North Carolina, United States. Lenovo was established in 1984 as Legend and later renamed as Lenovo. The company is into developing, designing, manufacturing as well as selling personal computers, smartphones, tablet computers, servers, workstations, electronic devices, smart televisions, and management software. The company is known for its volume sales. Laptops and notebooks are Lenovo’s top selling products. Recent innovations in Lenovo’s ultrabooks and laptops have transformed the company into a major successful brand in the IT industry. The IT and computer industry is extremely competitive with few big players dominating the market. However, many new local brands are being launched serving niche customers and reducing overall market share for these bigger players. Three major companies, Lenovo, HP, and Dell dominate this comp uter market. While Lenovo leads the Chinese market, HP and Dell have captured major market share across other parts of the globe. Lenovo has been trying to develop its strategic positioning through innovation and differentiation. In 2003, Lenovo launched an application technology, enhancing overall positioning. Apart from that, through constant innovation, Lenovo computer has been able to maintain a leadership position in China for past eight years.

The Role of Strategic Entrepreneurship Dissertation

The Role of Strategic Entrepreneurship - Dissertation Example Particular attention would is given to how they are applied in detail. At the end of this chapter, the proponent carefully elaborates the need to use of structural equation modeling, as a tool to put finally everything in detail into a model with valid empirical implications. This research would want to find out more about strategic entrepreneurship in the midst of prevailing tough competition. Concerning this, it is the main goal of the proponent to identify information with empirical evidence if each firm could still consider achieving individual competitive edge even if they would employ relevant competitive strategies. However, in order to identify this point, the proponent should ensure identification of the relevant methodology that would serve the objective of the study while it also would ensure validity of the output of the research study. This research aims to understand more about strategic entrepreneurship in the midst of prevailing dynamic competition. The proponent would want to find out if a firm could still guarantee competitive advantage even if they would employ relevant competitive strategies. Therefore, the following general question should generate answer at the end. When firms engage in strategic entrepreneurship does it establish temporal competitive advantage in a dynamic environment when competing vis-Ã  -vis other competitors in the industry with the objective of creating value for the society as a whole, shareholder of the firms, and the individuals? As already stated, the proponent would want to employ both quantitative and qualitative information from the existing studies linked up with strategic entrepreneurship. Empirical investigation is therefore necessary in order to create substantial empirical evidence based on the existing theoretical concepts linked up with the subject matter that the proponent considers in this research study.

Cheating Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

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How Cleanliness and Sense of Beauty Influence the Life of an Individual Essay Example for Free

How Cleanliness and Sense of Beauty Influence the Life of an Individual Essay How cleanliness and sense of beauty can influence the life of an individual Cleanliness is both the abstract state of being clean and free from dirt, and the process of achieving and maintaining that state. First of all, we should maintain good oral hygiene. We should brush our teeth twice daily, in the morning and after dinner. We replace our tooth brush every three or so months and select one that is best suited for our gum type. It is recommended that we use one with soft bristles as ones with hard bristles can cause bleeding gums. One of the first things that people notice about someone is their teeth and mouth. So we need to invest in a good mouth wash and use that after breakfast to kill off bad breath and make ourselves feel fresh and cleaner instantly. Otherwise, we might have bad breath which will cause people to avoid talking to us. When we are relaxing after a long, hard day, it can be irresistibly tempting to go to bed straight after dinner without having a shower but we must remember to take shower at least once a day, whether it is in the morning, afternoon or night. We should find a shampoo and a conditioner that works best with our hair type. We should always wash our hair after participating in any activities such as swimming in the sea or in a swimming pool and remember to always use both shampoo and conditioner every time we wash our hair, not just one of the two. We should find a good body wash which smells good and works well for us. We should learn to trim and shave excessive hair around the body. Showering and trimming excessive hair is very important. If we do not take shower and have excessive hair, society will avoid us and be filled with disgust towards us. Next, we need find a face wash which works for us. Acne or pimples are no fun to have around, and can make our skin red and irritated. So, we must wash our face every morning after we wake up. Not only will it create a stable face washing routine, it will also help us to feel more awake and alert. This can be an alternative to drinking coffee in the morning! Next, need to use a good antiperspirant, perfume or cologne. This is extremely important as nobody wants to smell bad. There is no need to buy a very expensive perfume just as long as the one we’re buying smells good. We should try and keep a deodorant with us if we know well be participating in any type of physical activity. And mostly we need to keep our bedroom and house clean! We need to keep a rubbish bin in any room we might do any eating or craft-type activities in so whenever we need to throw away rubbish we have a bin to use and we won’t tempted to throw it on the ground. If we leave paper trails and garbage in our house and guests come to visit us, it will look very bad to everybody and they will visit us less often. So, we need to keep our house and environment clean. We should also remember these tips: 1. We shouldn’t share hair brushes or razors. We should clean both of them frequently. 2. We should always wash our clothes as often as we can. 3. We should avoid biting our nails. 4. We should wash our hands before eating any meal so that germs do not spread. We should also wash it after eating any meal so that we remain clean. 5. Where possible, we should avoid participating in activities that make us dirty.

Cryptography: Types, Methods and Uses

Cryptography: Types, Methods and Uses CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Introduction to Cryptography Cryptography is art of writing and reading the secret information. It is used to send the information between the various participants. It can be used in such a manner so that it could not be seen by the others. Cryptography is used to prevent the information from the attacker. It provides various services as : Integrity checking Authentication Confidentiality In case of integrity checking recipient thinks that the message is alter by the third party or attacker. Hence the user assures the recipient that the message has not been altered by any other source. In case of authentication the identity of the person is check by the user. The user verifies the identity of the person and handle over the right to use the particular data. In case of confidentiality the attacker watch the data carefully when it send from user to recipient. The third party can’t change the data. The message which is in the original form is known as the plaintext. The user encrypted the message before sending to the recipient is known as cipher text. When the cipher text is produces from plaintext, this process is known as encryption. [1]. The reverse process of encryption is called decryption. In the cryptographic systems an algorithm and a key is used. The key is known as the secret value. Cryptography is a field of computer networks which transforms (encrypts) the information (plain text) into an unreadable form (cipher text). And this cipher text can be decrypted only with the help of a secret key. Cryptography acts as a method of keeping the information secret. Cryptography protects the information by using mathematics in science. Electronic security is a major issue as various forms of electronic media and internet are becoming more prevalent. Cryptography is used to secure the data and to prevent the data from various attacks. Cryptography is necessary when communicating over any un-trusted medium. Authentication, digital signatures, e-commerce are major applications of cryptography. Generally in the cryptographic systems it can broadly classified into two systems. Symmetric key systems. Public key systems. In the symmetric key cryptography, single key is used for the encryption and the decryption purpose. The same key is used at the sender and the recipient side. On the other hand, in case of public key system, two types of keys are required. One is the public key and other one is the private key. Public key is known to all but the private key is known only to the recipient of messages uses. One of the techniques used in Cryptography is known as the visual cryptography. It is a cryptographic technique, which allows visual information to encrypt. The data is encrypted in such a way that decryption becomes a mechanical operation. For these kinds of operations computer is not required. Earlier the developers used visual secret sharing scheme. In this scheme the image was broken into many parts. The third party thinks that all these parts are used to decrypt the image. But the n − 1 parts of the image revealed no information about the original image. In this technique each part has its separate transparency. The decryption is performed by overlaying the parts. When all the parts were overlaid, then the original image would appear. Cryptogra phy is the technique, which is used to protect the information from the external viewers. It plays a vital role in security. The public key encryption and decryption is one of the most important types of cryptography. In public key cryptography the key should be unique. There are two ways of key production. The first one is mathematical like AES, DES and the other one is based on the theory of natural selection. The multimedia technology plays an important role in our society. In this case the digital images play a very important role. The digital images are used to fulfil the security and privacy in various applications. Encryption of image plays a very important role; it helps to save the image from the unauthorized attack. Many solutions are providing to save this image; one of the techniques is mask the image data. For the encryption purpose many algorithms are required, such as [2] : DES AES RSA Broadly, Cryptographic systems provide us three types of cryptographic algorithms namely, Secret Key Cryptography (SKC), Public Key Cryptography (PKC) and Hash Functions [3]. The Secret Key Cryptography (SKC) uses a single (same) key for the process of encryption and decryption. The most commonly SKC algorithms used now-a-days include: 1.2 Data Encryption Standard (DES) It was designed in 1970’s by IBM and was ratified in 1977 by the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) for commercial use. It is a block cipher that operates on 64-bit blocks employing a 56-bit key and 16 rounds [4]. Although DES has been around long back but no real weakness has been identified. The biggest disadvantage of DES is the 56 bit key size. 1.3 Advanced Encryption Standard (AES) It was designed by Vincent Rijmen and Joan Daemen and was introduced in 1998. The algorithm can use fickle key length and block length. The key length can include 128, 192, or 256 bits and block length can be of 128, 192, or 256 bits [5].AES is a highly efficient and secure algorithm. The drawback lies in its processing as it requires more processing. 1.4 Rivest Cipher (RC) Ronald Rivest developed this algorithm and thus, the name of the algorithm was put after Ronald’s Rivest name. It provides a series of RC algorithms including RC1, RC2, RC3, RC4, RC5 and RC6 [6]. 1.5 Blowfish It was developed by Bruce Schneie and was first published in the year 1993. This block cipher has 8 rounds, having the block size is of 64 bits and the key length can vary from 32 to 448 bits. Blowfish was proposed as a substitute was DES [7]. This algorithm is significantly faster than other algorithms and the key strength is excellent. Blowfish algorithm is apt only for applications where the key mostly remains the same. The Public Key Cryptography (PKC) uses one (public) key for encryption and another (private) key for decryption. The PKC algorithms that are in use today are: 1.6 RSA The RSA algorithm was publicly described in 1977 by Ron Rivest,Adi Shamir, and Leonard Adleman at MIT; the letters RSA are the initials of their surnames, listed in the same order as on the paper. RSA is a cryptosystem, which is known as one of the first practicable public-key cryptosystems and is widely used for secure data transmission. In such a cryptosystem, the encryption key is public and differs from the decryption key which is kept secret. In RSA, this asymmetry is based on the practical difficulty of factoring the product of two large prime numbers, the factoring problem. RSA stands for Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonard Adleman, who first publicly described the algorithm in 1977. Clifford Cocks, an English mathematician, had developed an equivalent system in 1973, but it wasnt declassified until 1997. A user of RSA creates and then publishes the product of two large prime numbers, along with an auxiliary value, as their public key. The prime factors must be kept secret. Anyone can use the public key to encrypt a message, but with currently published methods, if the public key is large enough, only someone with knowledge of the prime factors can feasibly decode the message. Breaking RSA encryption is known as the RSA problem. It is an open question whether it is as hard as the factoring problem. The system includes a communications channel coupled to at least one terminal having an encoding device and to at least one terminal having a decoding device. A message-to be- transferred is enciphered to cipher text at the encoding terminal by encoding the message as a number M in a predetermined set. That number is then raised to a first predetermined power (associated with the intended receiver) and finally computed. The remainder or residue, C, is computed when the exponentiated number is divided by the product of two predetermined prime numbers (associated with the intended receiver). Operation of RSA The RSA algorithm involves three steps: Key Generation Encryption Decryption. 1.6.1 Key Generation RSA involves a public key and a private key. The public key can be known by everyone and is used for encrypting messages. Messages encrypted with the public key can only be decrypted in a reasonable amount of time using the private key. The keys for the RSA algorithm are generated the following way: Choose two distinct prime numbers p and q. For security purposes, the integers p and q should be chosen at random, and should be of similar bit-length. Prime integers can be efficiently found using a primarily test. Compute n = pq.n is used as the modulus for both the public and private keys. Its length, usually expressed in bits, is the key length. Compute φ(n) = φ(p)φ(q) = (p − 1)(q − 1), where φ is Eulers totient function Choose an integer e such that 1 e is released as the public key exponent. e having a short bit-length and small Hamming weight results in more efficient encryption – most commonly 216 + 1 = 65,537. However, much smaller values of (such as 3) have been shown to be less secure in some settings. Determine d as d ≠¡ e−1 (mod φ(n)); i.e., d is the multiplicative inverse of e (modulo φ(n)). This is more clearly stated as: solve for d given d.e ≠¡ 1 (mod φ(n)) This is often computed using the extended Euclidean algorithm. Using the pseudo code in the Modular integers section, inputs a and n correspond to e and (n), respectively. d is kept as the private key exponent. The public key consists of the modulus n and the public (or encryption) exponent e. The private key consists of the modulus n and the private (or decryption) exponent d, which must be kept secret. p, q, and φ(n) must also be kept secret because they can be used to calculate d. 1.6.2 Encryption A transmits her public key (n, e) to B and keeps the private key secret. B then wishes to send message M to A. He first turns M into an integer m, such that 0 _ m by using an agreed-upon reversible protocol known as a padding scheme. He then computes the ciphertext c corresponding to c = memod(n) 1.6.3 Decryption We can recover message m from c by using her private key exponent d via computing Given m, we can recover the original message M by reversing the padding scheme.(In practice, there are more efficient methods of calculating cd using the precomputed values below.) 1.7 Enhanced RSA The RSA algorithm based on the variable N which consisting of multiplying each of the P and q, which are relying on that of where to find the variable d, as the variable d is, hence the higher value of n. The variable d increases its size, the higher value of p and q the value of d increases, which means that the algorithm depends entirely on the adoption of the prime numbers because they generate a key d, depending on p and q are already primes numbers. The weaknesses of RSA algorithm when we use two prime’s number are the following points which are used to break the algorithm in most cases. These weaknesses are: (a) Small encryption exponent, if you use a small exponent like e=3 and send the same message to different recipients. (b) Using the same key for encryption and signing. (c) Acting as an oracle: there are techniques to recover the plaintext if a user just blindly returns the RSA transformation of the input. The idea of the new approach is, instead of using two primes numbers to generate a public key and private key, we use three primes numbers with reduced size, generates the variable N Large and the process of analysis of the factors is more difficult than the original algorithm, as well as, increases the ease of generating Public key and private key. The key strength of the RSA depends on the two prime numbers p and q. The process of factorizing of n will lead to gain the values of p and q. It is much easier to find two numbers from factoring n than finding the value of three numbers from n. In this case it is very difficult for the intruder to find the three values from factoring n. 1.7.1 Key Generation in Enhanced RSA (a) Choose three distinct prime numbers p, q and s. (b) Find n such that n = p*q*s.n will be used as the modulus for both the public and private keys. (c) Find the Phi of n, à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¹ (n) = (p-1)(q-1)(s-1). (d) Choose an e such that 1 (e) Determine d which satisfies the congruence relation d*eà ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ º 1(modà ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¹(n)) In other words, pick d such that de 1 can be evenly divided by (p- 1)(q-1)(s-1), the Phi, or à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¹(n).This is often computed using the Extended Euclidean Algorithm, since e and à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¹(n) are relatively prime and d is to be the modular multiplicative inverse of e*d is kept as the private key exponent. The public key has modulus n and the public (or encryption) exponent e. The private key has modulus n and the private (or decryption) exponent d, which is kept secret .The encryption equation is c à ¯Ã‚ Ã‚ ¹ me (mod n) and the decryption one is m à ¯Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ º cd (mod n). 1.8 Diffie Hellman This algorithm was introduced in1976 by Diffie-Hellman. The Diffie-Hellman algorithm grants two users to establish a shared secret key and to communicate over an insecure communication channel [10]. One way authentication is free with this type of algorithm. The biggest limitation of this kind of algorithm is communication made using this algorithm is itself vulnerable to man in the middle attack [11]. Diffie–Hellman establishes a shared secret that can be used for secret communications while exchanging data over a public network. The following diagram illustrates the general idea of the key exchange by using colors instead of a very large number. The crucial part of the process is that Aand B exchange their secret colors in a mix only. Finally this generates an identical key that is mathematically difficult (impossible for modern supercomputers to do in a reasonable amount of time) to reverse for another party that might have been listening in on them. A and B now use this co mmon secret to encrypt and decrypt their sent and received data. Note that the starting color (yellow) is arbitrary, but is agreed on in advance by A and B. The starting color is assumed to be known to any eavesdropping opponent. It may even be public. 1.8.1 Explanation including encryption mathematics The simplest and the original implementation of the protocol uses the multiplicative group of integers modulo p, where p is prime and g is primitive root mod p. Here is an example of the protocol, with nonsecret values in blue, and secret values in red. Small integers are used for clarity, but actual implementations require using much larger numbers to achieve security. Fig 1.1 Process of Diffie Hellman 1. p = 23 and base g = 5. 2. A chooses a secret integer a = 6, then sends B A = ga mod p A = 56 mod 23 A = 15,625 mod 23 A = 8 3. B chooses a secret integer b = 15, then sends A B = gb mod p B = 515 mod 23 B = 30,517,578,125 mod 23 B = 19 4. A computes s = Ba mod p s = 196 mod 23 s = 47,045,881 mod 23 s = 2 5. Bob computes s = Ab mod p s = 815 mod 23 s = 35,184,372,088,832 mod 23 s = 2 6. A and B now share a secret (the number 2) because 6 Ãâ€" 15 is the same as 15 Ãâ€" 6. Both A and B have arrived at the same value, because (ga)b and (gb)a are equal mod p. Note that only a, b, and (gab gba mod p) are kept secret. All the other values – p, g, ga mod p, and gb mod p – are sent in the clear. Once A and B compute the shared secret they can use it as an encryption key, known only to them, for sending messages across the same open communications channel. Of course, much larger values of a, b, and p would be needed to make this example secure, since there are only 23 possible results of n mod 23. However, if p is a prime of at least 300 digits, and a and b are at least 100 digits long, then even the fastest modern computers cannot find a given only g, p, gb mod p and g amod p. The problem such a computer needs to solve is called the discrete logarithm problem. 1.9 El-Gamal It was developed in the year 1984 by Taher Elgamal. It is an asymmetric key algorithm and is based on Diffie-Hellman key exchange. ElGamal encryption can be described over anycyclic groupG. The security relies upon the issue of a problem inGrelated to computing discrete logarithms [12]. Fast generalized encryption for long messages and data expansion rate are the two biggest advantages of this algorithm [13]. The chief drawback of ElGamal is the requirement for randomness and its slower speed [14]. ElGamal encryption can be defined over any cyclic group G. Its security depends upon the difficulty of a certain problem in G related to computing discrete logarithms. The Algorithm ElGamal encryption consists of three components: the key generator, the encryption algorithm, and the decryption algorithm. 1.9.1 Key Generation The key generator works as follows: It generates an efficient description of a multiplicative cyclic group G of order q with generator g. Sender chooses a random x from (1,†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦q-1) He computes h= gx A publishes h , along with the description of G,q,g , as her public key. He retains x as her private key which must be kept secret. Fig 1.2 El-Gamal Algorithm 1.9.2 Example of El-Gamal Algorithm: Fig 1.3 Example of El-Gamal Algorithm. Hash Functions, also known as message digest, are the algorithms that do not use any key. Based upon the plain text, a fixed length hash value is generated.Hash algorithms that are commonly used today include: 1.10 Message Digest (MD) algorithms It produces a hash value of 128 bit from an arbitrary length message. The MD series includes MD2, MD4 and MD5 [11]. 1.10.1 MD5 algorithm The MD5 algorithm was developed by Rivest in 1991 and is an extension of the MD4 message-digest algorithm and is bit slower than MD4. This algorithm results in a 128 bit hash value. It is mostly used in security based applications. MD5 is more secure than MD4 [15]. It is suitable to use for standard file verifications but it has some flaws and therefore, it is not useful for advanced encryption applications [16].

Case Study of Low Blood Pressure

Case Study of Low Blood Pressure Mr Jones has a BP of 90/60. Please name the appropriate health terminology in relation to his BP. Normal Range = Hypotension Low blood pressure is referred to as hypotension, especially in the arteries of the systemic circulation. Hypotension is generally considered systolic blood pressure less than 90 millimetres of mercury (mmHg) or diastolic less than 60 mmHg. A persons blood pressure reading appears as two numbers. The first and higher of the two numbers is a measure of systolic pressure or the pressure in the persons arteries when their heart beats and fills them with blood. The second number measures diastolic pressure or the pressure in the persons arteries when their heart rests between beats. A desired blood pressure is less than 120/80. In people who are considered to be healthy, low blood pressure without experiencing any symptoms is commonly not a concern and does not need to be treated. Low blood pressure may be a sign of an underlying issue, particularly in the elderly, where it might cause inadequate blood flow to their heart, vital organs, and brain. Fortunately, chronic low blood pressure without symptoms is rarely serious. Health issues may happen, however, when a persons blood pressure suddenly drops and their brain is deprived of an adequate blood and oxygen supply. The condition may lead to light-headedness or dizziness. A sudden drop in blood pressure usually happens in a person who has risen from a prone or sitting position to a standing one. When this occurs it is referred to as, postural hypotension or orthostatic hypotension. Another type of low blood pressure may happen when a person stands for extended periods of time. This is referred to as, neurally-mediated hypotension. Postural hypotension is considered to be a failure of a persons cardiovascular system or nervous system to react appropriately to sudden changes. Usually, when a person stands up, some of their blood pools in their lower extremities. If this remains uncorrected, it would cause the persons blood pressure to fall or decrease. A persons body usually compensates by sending messages to their heart to beat faster and to their blood vessels to constrict, offsetting the drop in blood pressure. If this does not happen, or does not happen quickly enough, postural hypotension is the result. Blood Pressure and Aging The risk of low and high blood pressure commonly increases as a person ages due in part to changes during the aging process. The flow of blood to a persons heart muscle and brain declines as a person ages, many times as a result of plaque build-up in their blood vessels. While the causes of low blood pressure may not always be clear, it might be associated with things such as: Heart arrhythmias Heart failure Heat exhaustion or heat stroke Hormonal issues such as an under-active thyroid, diabetes, or low blood sugar Liver disease Pregnancy Some over-the-counter drugs Some prescription medications Widening of the blood vessels Causes of Sudden Drops in Blood Pressure Sudden drops in a persons blood pressure may be life-threatening. A number of different things may cause this type of hypotension. The causes of sudden drops in blood pressure may include: A reaction to alcohol or medication Anaphylaxis, a severe allergic reaction Heart muscle disease High body temperature Loss of blood Low body temperature Sepsis Severe dehydration from diarrhoea, vomiting, or fever People at Risk of Postural Hypotension Postural hypotension, or low blood pressure when a person stands up quickly, may happen to anyone for a number of reasons such as lack of food, dehydration, or simply being overly fatigued. It might also be influenced by a persons genetic make-up, medication, aging, psychological factors, dietary ones, or acute triggers such as allergy or infection. Postural hypotension happens most often in people who are taking medications to control high blood pressure or, hypertension. It may also be related to strong emotions, pregnancy, diabetes, or hardening of a persons arteries. Seniors are affected by postural hypotension in particular, especially seniors who experience high blood pressure or autonomic nervous system dysfunction. Hypotension after eating is a common cause of dizziness or even falls. It is most common after large meals containing a lot of carbohydrates. Medical science believes it is caused by blood pooling into a persons vessels in their stomach and intestines. A number of medications are associated with postural hypotension as well. The medications may be divided into two major categories: Medications used to treat high blood pressure such as beta-blockers, diuretics, calcium-channel blockers, and angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors Medications that have hypotension as a side effect such as anti-psychotics, neuroleptics, nitrates, anti-anxiety agents, tricyclic antidepressants, sedative-hypnotics, and medications for Parkinsons disease Some causes of naturally occurring postural hypotension exist. For example, dehydration and electrolyte loss might result from vomiting, diarrhoea, excessive blood loss during menstruation, or other conditions. A persons age associated decline in blood pressure regulation is another example and is something that might worsen due to certain health conditions or medications. Some diseases may cause postural hypotension as well. Diseases such as Shy-Drager syndrome or, multiple system atrophy, nerve issues such as peripheral neuropathy or autonomic neuropathy, cardiovascular disorders, nutritional diseases, or alcoholism may cause postural hypotension. Blood Pressure Ranges Listed below are the ranges for Low (Table 1) Normal (Table 2) and High (Table 3) blood pressure respectively. Systolic pressure (mm Hg) Diastolic pressure (mm Hg) Pressure Range 90 60 Borderline Low blood Pressure 60 40 Too Low Blood Pressure 50 33 Dangerously Low Blood Pressure Table 1 Low Blood Pressure Range Systolic pressure (mm Hg) Diastolic pressure (mm Hg) Pressure Range 130 85 High Normal Blood Pressure 120 80 Normal Blood Pressure 110 75 Low Normal Blood Pressure Table 2 Normal Blood Pressure Range If one or both numbers are usually high, you have high blood pressure (Hypertension). Systolic pressure (mm Hg) Diastolic pressure (mm Hg) Stages of High Blood Pressure 210 120 Stage 4 180 110 Stage 3 160 100 Stage 2 140 90 Stage 1 Table 3 High Blood Pressure Range Figure 1Visual representation of Systolic and Diastolic Ranges       Age Systolic BP Diastolic BP 3-6 116 76 7-10 122 78 11-13 126 82 14-16 136 86 17-19 120 85 20-24 120 79 25-29 121 80 30-34 122 81 35-39 123 82 40-44 125 83 45-49 127 84 50-54 129 85 55-59 131 86 60+ 134 87 The average Systolic and Diastolic blood pressure is affected by age, as shown in Age Males (mmHg) Females (mmHg) 1 3 80/34 120/75 83/38 117/76 4 to 6 88/47 128/84 88/50 122/83 7 10 92/53 130/90 93/55 129/88 Table 4 Average Systolic and Diastolic Ranges of Neonates and Infants Table 5 Average Systolic and Diastolic Ranges of Children and Adults Mr Jones has a HR of 153. Please name the appropriate health terminology in relation to his HR reading. Normal Range = What is an arrhythmia? An arrhythmia is a disruption in the hearts normal electrical system which causes an abnormal or irregular heart beat for no apparent reason. Anyone can develop an arrhythmia, even a young person without a previous heart condition. However, arrhythmias are most common in people over 65 who have heart damage caused by a heart attack, cardiac surgery or other conditions. There are many types of arrhythmias, including: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Heartbeats that are too slow (bradycardia) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Heartbeats that are too fast (tachycardia) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Extra beats à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Skipped beats à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Beats coming from abnormal areas of the heart Typical symptoms Some arrhythmias may occur without any symptoms. Others may cause noticeable symptoms, such as: à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Chest pain à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Dizziness, sensation of light-headedness à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Fainting à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Fatigue à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Sensation of a missed or extra heart beat à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Sensation of your heart fluttering (palpitations) à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Shortness of breath à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢Weakness Figure 2 Location of Arterial Pulses where Heart Rate can be Detected Figure 3 Normal Heart Rate on an ECG Symptoms of Arrhythmias Symptoms of arrhythmias can vary widely from person to person. An arrhythmia may last for a few minutes, a few hours, a few days, even a few weeks at a time. Some people feel no symptoms at all. Most commonly, patients report feeling a rapid heartbeat, often described as a fluttering sensation. Depending on the severity of the arrhythmia, that may be the only symptom experienced. Others may experience shortness of breath, fatigue, dizziness or fainting. Types of Arrhythmias Arrhythmias that cause heartbeats that are too fast are called tachycardia. There are several different types of tachycardia, which are categorized by where they originate in the heart. Figure 4 Supraventricular Tachycardia Location and ECG Presentation Supraventricular Tachycardia (SVT) is a general term describing any rapid heart rate originating above the ventricles (the lower chambers of the heart). The most common SVTs are described below. Atrial fibrillation (AF or AFib) is the most common SVT. During AF, the heartbeat produced by the atria is irregular and rapid, sometimes up to 4 times faster than normal. This impairs the hearts ability to efficiently pump blood and increases the risk of developing blood clots which can cause a transient ischemic attack (TIA) or stroke. Atrial flutter (AFL) is similar to atrial fibrillation in that it is characterised by a rapid heartbeat, sometimes up to 4 times faster than normal that originates in the atria. It differs from atrial fibrillation (AF) in that the heartbeat is regular, not irregular. Atrial flutter also carries the risk of developing blood clots, though not as great as with AF. With atrial flutter, the electrical signal becomes trapped in the right atrium. It repeatedly travels in a circular pattern inside the right atrium, only occasionally escaping through the AV node to the ventricles. This causes your atria to beat faster than the ventricles of your heart, at rates between 150 and 450 beats each minute. Atrioventricular nodal re-entrant tachycardia (AVNRT) is the second most common SVT. In a normal heart, there is a single electrical pathway, or gate, called an atrioventricular node (AV node) that controls the timing and direction of the electrical signal as it travels from the upper chambers (atria) to the lower chambers (ventricles) of the heart. With AVNRT, an extra electrical pathway forms which allows the electrical signal to travel backward through the gate (AV Node) at the same time, starting another heartbeat. During AVNRT the electrical signals continuously go around the 2 pathways in a circular pattern called re-entry. This can lead to a very fast heart rate of 160 to 220 beats per minute. Atrioventricular reciprocating tachycardia (AVRT) is similar to AVNRT in that an extra electrical pathway is formed that allows the electrical signal to travel backward from the ventricles to the atria. However, in AVRT the extra pathway circumvents the AV node, or gate. This extra pathway around the outside of the AV node is called an accessory pathway. Ventricular Tachycardia (VT) is a rapid heart rate (160 to 240 beats per minute) that originates in the ventricles. It may cause the heart to become unable to pump adequate blood throughout the body. VT most often occurs in patients with underlying structural heart disease, such as ischemic heart disease. Figure 6Ventricular Fibrillation ECG Presentation Ventricular Fibrillation (VF) is a tachycardia which causes the ventricles to contract in an irregular and very rapid manner. The heart immediately loses its ability to pump blood throughout the body. VF causes immediate loss of consciousness, and is invariably fatal within minutes unless it is stopped (usually by using a defibrillator.) AGE HEART RATE (BEATS/MIN) Infant 120-160 Toddler 90-140 Preschooler 80-110 School-age child 75-100 Adolescent 60-90 Adult 60-100 Table 6 Average Heart Rate Range by Age (Rested) Mr Jones has oxygen saturations of 75%. Please name the appropriate health terminology in relation to his oxygen saturations. Normal Range = Pulse oximetry is a non-invasive and continuous method of determining the oxygen saturation of haemoglobin (SpO2). Peripheral oxygen saturation (SpO2) is usually measured with a pulse oximeter placed on the finger. SpO2 is normally 95% to 100%. If the level is below 90%, it is considered low, resulting in hypoxemia. Blood oxygen levels below 80% may compromise organ function, such as the heart and brain, and should be addressed promptly. Accurate SpO2 measurements may be difficult to obtain on patients who are hypothermic, receiving IV vasopressor therapy, or experiencing hypoperfusion and vasoconstriction. Figure 9 Pulse Oximeter Oxygen Saturation Levels Severity % Saturation None/Minimal 95-100% Mild 90-94% Moderate 80-89% Severe Table 7 Oxidation (SpO2) Levels Mr Jones has a RR of 6. Please name the appropriate health terminology in relation to his RR reading. Normal Range = Slow Breathing (Bradypnoea) A slow respiratory rate is usually significant at a rate of 8 or less per minute. Often this is an emergency and requires immediate therapy. Conditions causing bradypnoea are the ingestion of drugs (such as, alcohol, narcotics, sedative-hypnotics), increased intracranial pressure from trauma and haemorrhage (pressure on the respiratory centre), severe respiratory depression (that is, CO2 narcosis) and coma from any cause. It is seen in many pre-arrest and end-stage conditions. Treatment Assisted ventilation is often required with a bag-valve-mask (BVM). Endotracheal intubation is frequently necessary. AGE RATE (BREATHS/MIN) Newborn 35-40 Infant (6 months) 30-50 Toddler (2 years) 25-32 Child 20-30 Adolescent 16-20 Adult 12-20 Table 8 Respiration Rate Range by Age Mr Jones has a temperature of 39 C. Please name the appropriate health terminology in relation to his temperature reading. Normal Range = Measurement site Mouth / Armpit Ear / forehead Rectum Low temperature Consult a doctor Normal temperature 35.9 37.0 à ¢- ¦C 35.8 36.9 à ¢- ¦C 36.3 37.5 à ¢- ¦C You are perfectly well Increased temperature 37.1 37.5 à ¢- ¦C 37.0 37.5 à ¢- ¦C 37.6 38.0 à ¢- ¦C You should get some rest Light fever 37.6 38.0 à ¢- ¦C 37.6 38.0 à ¢- ¦C 38.1 38.5 à ¢- ¦C Check your temperature regularly and rest Moderate fever 38.1 38.5 à ¢- ¦C 38.1 38.5 à ¢- ¦C 38.6 39.0 à ¢- ¦C Check your temperature regularly. Consult a doctor if you get worse or if the fever lasts for more than three days High fever 38.6 39.5 à ¢- ¦C 38.6 39.4 à ¢- ¦C 39.1 39.9 à ¢- ¦C Consult a doctor, especially if the fever lasts for more than one day Very high fever 39.6 42.0 à ¢- ¦C 39.5 42.0 à ¢- ¦C 40.0 42.5 à ¢- ¦C Go to emergency ward of a hospital Table 9 Human Body Temperature Ranges Figure 12 Centigrade and Fahrenheit Representation of Temperature Ranges and Bodily Affection Please explain what the term dysphagia means in words that MR Jones can understand. Dysphagia is another term for a swallowing disorder. A person with dysphagia may experience difficulty swallowing food, liquid and/or their saliva. Some people may be incapable of swallowing at all. Dysphagia occurs when there is a problem with any part of the swallowing process, and often is the result of a stroke. People with dysphagia often have to eat food which is softened and/or mashed and consume liquids which are thickened. Figure 15 Fluid and Food for Dysphagic Persons Please describe hemiplegia as if you were explaining what this term meant to a family member of Mr Jones and how would this impact on taking his blood pressure? What is hemiplegia? Hemiplegia (sometimes called hemiparesis) is a condition that affects one side of the body. We talk about a right or left hemiplegia, depending on the side affected. It is caused by injury to parts of the brain that control movements of the limbs, chest, face, and so forth. This may happen before, during or soon after birth (up to two years of age approximately), when it is known as congenital hemiplegia (or unilateral cerebral palsy), or later in life as a result of injury or illness, in which case it is called acquired hemiplegia. Generally, injury to the left side of the brain will cause a right hemiplegia and injury to the right side a left hemiplegia. Hemiplegia is a condition which is lifelong and non-progressive, that is they do not get worse. How does hemiplegia occur? Acquired hemiplegia results from brain injury. The most common cause is a stroke (when a bleed or blood clot damages part of the brain), but it can also result from a head injury or infection. What are the effects of hemiplegia? It is difficult to generalise: hemiplegia affects each person differently. The most obvious result is a varying degree of weakness, stiffness (spasticity) and lack of control in the affected side of the body, rather like the effects of a stroke. In one person this may be very obvious (he or she may have little use of one hand, may limp or have poor balance); in another person it will be so slight that it only shows when attempting specific physical activities. What can be done to help? Hemiplegia cannot be cured, but a lot can be done to minimise its effects and help the individual achieve their potential. The person, once diagnosed, will probably be referred to a rehabilitation department of your local or regional hospital. Therapists, who work as part of a wider network of professionals including neurologists and orthopaedic and neurosurgeons, will work in partnership with you to develop his or her abilities. Understanding hemiplegia and knowing how you can help your loved one achieve his or her potential is vital. Your loved ones management will probably be based on a multidisciplinary approach, involving physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and possibly speech therapy where required. A physiotherapist and often an occupational therapist will work closely with each other and with partners or carers, to agree a programme of management with specific goals that are tailored to your loved ones development and needs. The aim will be to improve their participation in everyday activities e.g. social activities, feeding, dressing, and toileting. The therapists will work to develop their skills, assessing posture and providing muscle stretching, and possibly strengthening activities. This will help prevent possible secondary consequences of the condition such as pain or the development of weakened muscles. Goals could include improving function so that your loved one can grasp an object with the affected hand, or walk better. They should take into account the partner/ carers views, the time and effort involved in carrying out therapy activities, the impact on the patient and his/her family and how effective the activities might be. A therapy programme will probably include training partners/carers, and later the induvial him/herself, to carry out exercises or techniques which they should continue to use at home, e.g. during dressing or bathing, so that they become part of the individuals everyday life. The persons progress should be reviewed regularly to assess how well the therapy programme is working and consider whether there is a need for other treatments as well. These might include orthoses (devices, such as splints, fitted to the body to improve posture and/or function); medications or orthopaedic surgery. In general the person with hemiplegia should be treated as normally as possible. It is essential to involve the affected side in everyday activities, to make your loved one as two-sided as he or she can be. Are there other problems associated with hemiplegia? Yes, there may be. Because hemiplegia is caused by injury to the brain, it is not just motor pathways and motor development that may be affected. And despite the developing brains effort to relocate functions to undamaged areas, additional diagnoses may occur. Some of these are medical in nature, such as epilepsy, visual impairment or speech difficulties. Many people have less obvious additional challenges, such as perceptual problems, specific learning difficulties or emotional and behavioural problems. Each patient should be fully assessed and regularly monitored to identify if any of these associated problems are present. What does the future hold? In merely defining hemiplegia with its causes and effects we leave out perhaps the most important issue the shock of diagnosis and the fear of the unknown. When a person is first diagnosed, it is often difficult for a doctor to predict whether problems will be mild or severe later in life. He or she will often adopt a wait and see approach, which the patient and their supporters may find difficult to accept, since they may feel they are not being given all the facts. Understanding hemiplegia and knowing how you can help your loved one achieve his or her potential is vital. Make good use of the specialists dealing with your loved ones hemiplegia. Do ask them questions and make sure you understand their replies, if necessary asking them to repeat them using non- specialist terms. Support Life can be difficult for someone with hemiplegia who want to do the same things as they previously did. They tire more easily and the effort involved in simple tasks can be considerable. They need all the help and encouragement you can give them. And you need support in your turn ideally from others who understand how you feel and with whom you can also share ideas and information. You may find general support groups for disabled patients and their families in your own area your hospital or library should have information. And you may want to a national organisatio

Zora Neale Hurston Essay -- Zora Neale Hurston

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Zora Neale Hurston was a phenomenal woman. At the height of her success she was known as the â€Å"Queen of the Harlem Renaissance.† She came to overcome obstacles that were placed in front of her. Hurston rose from poverty to fame and lost it all at the time of her death. Zora had an unusual life; she was a child that was forced to grow up to fast. But despite Zora Neale Hurston’s unsettled life, she managed to surmount every obstacle to become one of the most profound authors of the century.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Zora Neale Hurston was born January 7, 1891 in Eatonville, Florida, the fifth of eight children to Reverend John Hurston and Lucy Potts Hurston. Zora was extraordinary person. When her mother died she was able to stay strong. Her father, didn’t have enough love in his heart to hold on to his daughter, she was casted out of the house by her estranged father; in addition, to being neglected Hurston, dealt with the periodic moving, against society expectations Hurston survived her harsh childhood.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  At the age of thirteen, Zora Neal Hurston’s life came to a halt. The woman who she would look to for understanding, support, protection and encouragement, her mother, died. From that point she had no direction in her life. She started writing just to keep herself from emotional and physical loneness. Hurston was devastated by the death of her mother (Howard 3). After the death of Zora’s mother, Hurston was sent to Jacksonville to go to school. Two months after school started Zora received news that her father had remarried. Zora’s father was never close to her, nevertheless she would come to respect and admire him. In her eyes, Hurston saw her father as a remarkable man who had beaten tough odds to make something of himself. Zora was never to return home from school; unfortunately she didn’t have a choice, since the school would not adopt her, as her father wanted them to. â€Å"Without Lucy Hurston to spur him on, he seemed content with what he had already accomplished, not only unwilling to assume new responsibilities but eager to lighten the load† (Witcover 35). With the little interest that the new Ms. Hurston took in the ambition of her husband or his children Zora Neale Hurston left home never to return. Zora found herself being passed from relative to relative. For the first time ... ...erstandings, about marriage and life and life’s possibilities, about selfhood and ultimately nationhood (Howard 6).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Between 1934 and 1948 Zora Neale Hurston published seven books. Two Folklore Mules and Men and Tell my Horse, four novels Jonah’s Gourd Vine, Moses, Man, of the Mountain, Their Eyes Were Watching God, Seraph on the Suwanee, Dust Tracks on a Road was her autobiography (Witcover 114). Of all the books that were written by Zora Neale Hurston Their Eyes Were Watching God was by far the most famous of her masterpieces. Today it stands as one of the most important pieces of fiction writing by a black woman. Zora was eccentric; she walks brightly among us today as a heroin (Howard 98-99).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Zora Neale Hurston was an outstanding woman. Although she had to struggle, Hurston was a hard working young lady that was determined to make it in life. Zora was able to finished high school and attend college. Zora also became a famous writer who wrote and published many plays and books throughout her career. Zora gained fame and lost it all at the time of her death. She was a remarkable woman who will never be forgotten.

Free Narrative Essays - Marching Backwards in Americana :: Personal Narrative Essay Example

Marching Backwards in Americana "I'd like to tell you about my dream... it's a place where strip malls abound and diversion's mere moments away. Where the ones least refined define culture; you'll be left behind if you don't fit in. Everything‚s backwards in Americana." --The Offspring Indeed, everything is backwards in our Beautiful America: Where the intellectuals are on the bottom of the social hierarchy--at least, until they become rich intellectuals. Where magnificent painters, musicians, and writers can be belittled as "starving artists"--before they become famous artists, that is. Where so many of us find it too difficult to take a walk or jog outside--but will spend hours searching for the remote control. Yes, this is Americana. "Live Free or Die," as the New Hampshire state motto tells us. Since the 18th-century debut of the phrase, it has inspired the encumbered to fight to no end for their rights to representative government, to vote, to equality. And when those liberties were granted, they sought the justice to industrialize Native American reserves, to dump toxic wastes into the ocean, to smother monkeys with chemicals. How long must we fight until we can call ourselves free? "Your freedom isn't free. Pushing us a drug you call freedom and democracy, promise us that selfishness is the means for happiness... If this is all there is to freedom, I don't want it." --Five Iron Frenzy Protect what's yours - steal what isn't. When someone else wants it, take it. If you can't have it, complain. Everything's game in this country, no? Isn't that the meaning of freedom? Something went seriously awry in this country's constant quest for justice‚ between July 4th, 1776, and today. Will we ever be satisfied with what we have, or will our crusades for more be the death of us? Let's demolish the forests, we need more homes--someone else can worry about oxygen depletion. Hop in the car, it's too far to walk around the block--I don‚t believe in acid rain. No place to dump those hazardous chemical wastes?

Epic of Beowulf Essay - Beowulf as Anglo-Saxon Hero :: Epic Beowulf herobeo

Beowulf - An Anglo-Saxon Hero A hero is a person of distinguished courage who has outstanding qualities and abilities, who is admired for these having these aspects of their character and also admired for brave and noble acts. An Anglo-Saxon hero is a person who has good leadership qualities, is able and willing to provide people with a sense of security, and is willing to go into danger despite possible harm to themselves. These Anglo-Saxon heroes usually were kings or thanes because they distinguished themselves above others by doing a good for the greater of everyone. This person has to be willing to put their own lives on the line for the benefit of others. There are several heroic characteristics, all of which Beowulf possesses. First of these characteristics is honor. Honor is showing a sense of integrity in one’s actions. When Beowulf went to the land of the Danes to kill Grendel, he did it not because he wanted money, but because he wanted to help out the Geats. Beowulf felt as if it was the right thing to do since he had been successful in past deeds which he proudly says in lines 321-322, where he says â€Å"They had in remembrance my courage and might. Many had seen me come safe from the conflict,†. Beowulf expected no reward for his action, but rather just being able to â€Å"put another notch in his belt.† Another heroic characteristic, which Beowulf possesses, is bravery. Bravery is being able to go against the odds and possibly risk your life in the process. An example of Beowulf showing bravery is when he goes to slay the dragon even though all his men abandon him. He realizes that the dragon is more powerful than he is, but he will still not back down. In line 1493, he says â€Å"Not one foot’s space will I flee from the monster,† thus showing his true bravery by not giving up to the more powerful foe. One more heroic characteristic of Beowulf is his strong sense of duty. This means that he is always devoted to his people, his king, and their security. An example of this is again when he goes to slay the dragon. He has no help, he realizes that the dragon is more powerful, and most importantly, he realizes that he will probably not be returning victorious from this battle.

Financial Education

Financial education should be a mandatory component of the school program. To what extent do you agree or disagree with this statement? It is an obvious fact that financial aspects are a major part of the daily life, as an adult and even as a young individual. Each and every one of us has to make financial decisions concerning recreation, health, education and more. The question is whether to start with financial education as part of school program or to postpone it for a later stage in life.To begin with, being able to understand the value of money, the way the economic system works and to interpret financial news and its implications is a virtue. Without this virtue, an individual, even a young one, might suffer to some extent. For an example, a child who doesn’t understand the concept of money might find it more difficult to except choosing only one present out of more possible ones. In addition, many adults are lacking capability of financial analysis.Quite often, the reas on can be the lack of sound foundations or insecurity when it comes to financial terms and concepts. Starting from an early age, building a strong background, can very likely prevent such situation. However, financial education necessarily involves quantifying and setting prices and value for services and goods. It can easily turn young people into cynical human beings who lack emotion.Furthermore, a tendency to self-concentration and egoism might rise when one start measuring everything from a profit-making perspective. In conclusion, financial education has both pros and cons. In my opinion, the advantages are more significant than the disadvantages, making financial education an advisable component of the school program. The disadvantages should be thought of as a certain price that young people have to pay due to the characteristics of the world that we live in.Financial Statements

Management Efficiency Ratios: Burger King vs. McDonalds

This paper seeks to compare Burger King (BK) with its competitor McDonald (MCD) in the restaurant industry, using their financial statements as basis in terms of profitability and management efficiency ratios for the latest fiscal year. This will also discuss the concept of operating cost, evaluate the annual and year-end results of the two companies, and interpret BK as takeover target compared with its competitors. Burger King’s profitability is obviously lower than MCD.Based on net profit margin for year 2008, BK had 7. 3% as compared with MCD’s 18. 3% for the same year. The same behavior may be observed in terms of pre-tax margin, where BK had 11% as against that of MCD at 26. 2 % for the same year. It is only in terms of gross margins that BK has exceeded that of MCD but the net margin and pre-tax margin are better ways to measure profitability as expenses need to be deducted further.For purposes of comparing the net profit margin and pre-tax margin of the two comp anies against the industry average, BK is worse but MCD is definitely better. The Return of Asset (ROA) of BK is 7. 1% for the 2008 and is lower than that of MCD, which reflected ROA of 14. 9% for the same year. The results of these ratios further confirmed earlier observation in net profit margin. The same better profitability is further observed in terms of Return of Equity (ROE) where BK showed 22. 2% for 2008, which is still lower than MCD’s 30.1% for 2008. While ROA measures how efficient management a company is in terms of assets employed in business, ROE measures how much management is compensating resources invested by stockholders, the results would still reinforce earlier finding that BK, is less profitable and less efficient than MCD. The less profitability and efficiency of BK as against MCD is also further proven in terms of the former’s lower receivable turnover of 18. 67 for 2008 as against 23. 7 for MCD and 46. 8 for industry average.Inventory turnover for BK is not possible because of its absence of inventory for 2008 while that of MCD, the figure is over 100 times for 2008, which is even higher than industry average. Even if no comparison could be made in terms of inventory turnover, there is sufficient evidence to show better profitability and efficiency for MCD as against BK. To discuss the concept of operating cost for operating a business, the same must be minimized in order to maximize profits since costs or expenses must be deducted from revenues in order to derive profit.The lower the cost, the higher would be the profit assuming revenues are the same. To evaluate the annual and year-end results of the two companies and interpret BK as takeover target compared with its competitors, there is need to look at profitability and management efficiency of the two companies. As found out, BK was less profitable and less efficient than MCD. However, a company wishing to take over another company does not necessarily follow that it can also take over a better competitor of the target for many reasons.What must be controlling on the part of the company making the takeover is the expected profit of the takeover, both over the short and the longer-term, and which should be higher than the cost of capital or operating cost in order to justify the takeover. It can be concluded that BK may be less profitable and less efficient than its competitor MCD may, but if the profitability of BK could improve the profitability and efficiency of both the acquired and the acquired company combined together after the takeover, there is still justification to continue the takeover of BK.References:MSN (2009a) Financial Ratios of Burger King, {www document} URL http://moneycentral. msn. com/investor/invsub/results/compare. asp? Symbol=US%3aBKC, Accessed April 17, 2009.MSN (2009b) Financial Ratios of McDonalds, {www document} URL http://moneycentral. msn. com/investor/invsub/results/compare. asp? Symbol=MCD, Accessed April 17, 200 9.

Effects of Armed Conflicts on Women

Armed conflict has always been an inherent characteristic of the world we live in. The causes of conflict can be multifarious ranging from attempts to gain economic, political or territorial advantage to social factors such as religion and ethnicity. Armed conflicts can also be varied in nature with inter, intra and even non state combatants fighting against each other. The complexity and scale of armed conflicts have increased to a great extent with the emergence of non-state terrorist and mercenary groups that lacks the distinctiveness of traditional state armies fighting against each other. The consequences have been devastating for an increasing number of the population of the world who are affected by such armed conflicts. These include not only the combatants but also civilians who get caught up in the fighting in one way or the other. In fact civilian casualties have been on the rise and climbing â€Å"dramatically from 5 per cent at the turn of the century, to 15 per cent during World War I, to 65 per cent by the end of World War II, to more than 75 per cent in the wars of the 1990s. † (UN Report, 2001) A very stereotypical view regarding armed conflicts is that it is the men who fight the battles while the women support them by taking care of the home front. Men are perceived as the fighters who suffer causalities while women have to play out the traditional roles of wives, mothers and care givers and are therefore comparatively unaffected by war. Byrne (1996) however holds that even though it is largely men who directly fight and die in battles, it is women who constitute an overwhelming majority of the civilian casualties of war. Byrne goes on to add that the concept of women staying safely at home while the men fight the war at the front, and the differentiation between ‘conflict’ and ‘safe’ zones in armed conflict are essentially myths that do not take stock of the practical situation. Moreover, the fact that a growing number of women are also participating in armed conflicts around the world as active combatants and not merely as passive support providers adds a new dimension to the effects of armed conflicts on women. The Independent Experts’ Assessment on the Impact of Armed Conflict on Women and the role of Women in Peace-Building (2001) commissioned by the United Nations Development Funds for Women chose ‘During Armed Conflict Women’s Bodies Become a Battleground’ as the title of the introductory chapter of its report. This exemplifies the extent of violence against women as a result of armed conflicts. Civilians have become the primary targets in new terror tactics that have evolved in armed conflicts. But it is women who suffer most. Men and boys as well as women and girls are the victims of this targeting, but women, much more than men, suffer gender-based violence. Their bodies become a battleground over which opposing forces struggle. † (Rehn & Sirleaf, 2001) The United Nations defines violence against women as â€Å"any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, inc luding threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty, whether occurring in public or in private. † (Machel, 2000) It is a matter of grave concern that women are actually subjected to every conceivable act of violence and more, that can fall under the purview of the definition. Not only do women face generic violence such as torture, killing, imprisonment and forced labour under conditions of war, but they also suffer gender-specific violence that strike at the very core of their existence. They are abducted and raped, used as sexual slaves, forced to cook, clean, carry water and loads and do other domestic chores; and even used as human shields or put to risky undertakings such clearing minefields. There are numerous examples. Rehn & Sirleaf (2001) reports that â€Å"94% per cent of displaced households surveyed in Sierra Leone had experienced sexual assaults, including rape, torture and sexual slavery†¦ at least 250,000 – perhaps as many as 500,000 – women were raped during the 1994 genocide in Rwanda. † This however is only the tip of the iceberg. The sufferings of women in armed conflicts never seem to end. They are forced by the circumstances to sell sex to survive, they are taken advantage of sexually even by people who are supposed to help them, and finally, they have to face censure at the hands of those very near and dear ones for whom they make all the sacrifices. Such is their plight. The Reason Why The roots of the violence that women suffer during the course of armed conflicts are however opined to lie elsewhere. Violence is said to be perpetuated on women not solely because of the conditions of war but because of a direct relation with violence in the life of women even during peace time (Rehn & Sirleaf 2001). The relationship between the genders is determined by the extent of access to or distribution of power. Men are in more control of resources and power than women. Since women do not have control over power and resources they as a gender are usually not the cause behind wars. In spite of that they suffer because of their inherent power and control position vis-a-vis men. Again, the greater emphasis by nations on increasing their military strength results in a deterioration of the rights of women exacerbating the inequalities in gender relations. In a display of unadulterated hypocrisy however, many armed conflicts are justified on the grounds of restoring or maintaining gender equality. This was clearly the case in the American invasion of Afghanistan ion 2001 when liberation of women from the fanatical regime of the Talibans was cited as a reason even though there was hardly any concern for the plight of the same women during the five years prior to the invasion even when local and international NGOs constantly strived to draw attention to their sufferings (Jack, 2003). It is very true that â€Å"although entire communities suffer the consequences of armed conflict and terrorism, women and girls are particularly affected because of their status in society and their sex. † (Beijing Declaration, 1996). The effect of war on women depends to a great extent on their gendered role that defines their constraints and opportunities in society. Women become more vulnerable war atrocities when they are perceived as symbolic bearers of the pride and honour of a community. In such cases women are specifically targeted as a way of denting the very essence of he rival community. In regions where women are deemed to represent the cultural and ethnic identity of communities as the producer of future generations, any assault on their honour becomes an assault on the morale and honour of the entire community. Under such circumstances public rape and torture of women is considered to have serious demoralizing effects on enemy communities. The victors or occupation forces resort to sexual exploitation of women because of such underlying war strategies coupled with inherent sexual urges. Yet the same symbolic role of women can be a cause of threat or attack even from their own community for not conforming to the role in some way or the other in adverse conditions, such as not wearing a veil or venturing into forbidden areas as has been the case in the Islamic world. Armed conflict is therefore like a double edged sword for women. Societal norms also force women to bear atrocities. The comments of a doctor working with Save the Children Fund, in an ICRC/TVE film (2000) illustrate the point: In certain villages bordering conflict young girls have admitted that armed men come in at night – these girls are used as sex workers – they are not allowed to protest – they are not allowed to lock their doors and the whole community tolerates this because these armed men protect the community – so it is a trade off. †¦Ã¢â‚¬  When sexual violence is used as a means of warfare or when women are pressurized to bear children as a means of supply of future soldiers, women become a very vulnerable gender to the violence of armed conflict. In conflict zones such as Bosnia-Herzegovina and Kosovo, sexual violence was used as a means of ‘ethnic cleansing’. The Serbian police and paramilitary forces used rape to punish women belonging to the Kosovo Liberation Army (Human Rights Watch, 2000). Different Wars, Different Stages, Different Roles The different kinds of armed warfare, their different stages and the different roles that women play in these conflicts all have different effects on women. Modern armed conflicts are fought between adversaries that are very different from the conventional state armies. Terrorist groups and non-state players give armed conflicts a new dimension in the modern world. The problem with such combatants is that they do not adhere to international laws governing warfare and have no scruples in indulging in violence and atrocities that would fall in the category of war crimes. The Geneva Conventions and its protocols find no takers in them. They are not regulated by any authority and are guided either by their own perverted consciences or by fanatical ideologies. As a result women become more susceptible all kinds of violence from such elements in armed conflict. Armed conflicts usually pass through different stages viz. the pre-conflict stage or run up to the conflict, the conflict itself, the stage of conflict resolution or the peace process and the post conflict stage of reconstruction and reintegration. Each of these stages hold different horrors for women depending on the different roles that women play in such conflicts. Women act as agents of change when they participate in the prevention, resolution or management of armed conflicts. Their participation is very important because without them the views, needs and interests of half of the population go unrepresented. Conversely, women also act as agents of change when they indirectly support the men to take up arms for any cause which they may believe in. In the case of Rwanda, women were found to have been accomplices to and participants in gross acts of genocide (Lindsey, 2001). This indirect participation of women takes on added significance in their role as the primary influence on children. Women as mothers can influence children in many ways and mould them to serve as soldiers in armed conflicts. The simple act of women telling stories centered on sensitive issues of ethnic or clan conflicts could sensitize the children. Encouraging future generations to fight, may be considered as subtle participation of women in the armed conflicts as agents of change. Acting as agents of change is fraught with dangers because women often have to consciously take sides in their efforts to better the situation or to protect themselves and their families. They put themselves at risk in doing so. In the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) women of the South Kivu region were buried alive by people of their own villages because they were said to be witches. It was however found that they suffered their fate because the villagers suspected them of providing food and medicines to armed groups which the villagers did not support (Rehn & Sirleaf 2001). Women participate as active combatants in armed conflicts. â€Å"†¦the number of women who participate in fighting forces is increasing in nearly all conflicts. Women have constituted significant proportions of combatants and combat support operations in conflicts in Eritrea, Mozambique, Zimbabwe, Vietnam, Cambodia, Sri Lanka, Nepal, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Uganda, and Rwanda † (USAID, 2007). As active combatants women face the same ravages of war as fighting men do. However, in many cases, women are abducted and forced to participate as combatants. The Revolutionary United Front in Sierra Leone made it a practice to raid villages and abduct children of both sexes to force them to join in the fighting. The abducted children were often raped, starved and drugged and then forced to kill. It has been the same in Uganda, Mozambique, Liberia and other war torn places. Women also get involved in the fighting as ‘followers’ of fighters. In such a role the woman does not carry arms but provide full and active support to the fighters. She acts as cook, domestic servant, sexual partner, guard or porter or all of these together. She may even be used as human shield in the fighting. It is not very difficult to imagine the trauma that she goes through in such roles. Women become victims and spoils of war. It is a very common practice of conquering forces to claim women of the defeated party as spoils of war. In an occupied land, women are also forced to curry sexual favors to the victorious forces for the sake of their own survival and the survival of their families. The fate of women is closely linked to the fate of their men. When men leave their homes to fight or die in the fighting, the women often becomes the primary bread winner of the family and has to take on additional role and responsibilities. This puts the woman in an entirely new social position, one that could even turn out to be advantageous but is more often than not a position that entails untold hardships on her. Left to fend alone for her family and herself, a woman could be driven to any extent and exploited easily under such circumstances. A woman usually finds herself in such a role in the post conflict stage of reconstruction and reintegration. Scars that do not heal Armed conflicts affect women physically, psychologically, economically, socially and even spiritually. They are more susceptible to violence than men because they are women. â€Å"Women are victims of unbelievably horrific atrocities and injustices in conflict situations; this is indisputable. As refugees, internally displaced persons, combatants, heads of household and community leaders, as activists and peace-builders, women and men experience conflict differently. Women rarely have the same resources, political rights, authority or control over their environment and needs that men do. In addition, their caretaking responsibilities limit their mobility and ability to protect themselves. † (Rehn & Sirleaf 2001). Gender Based Violence (GBV) can take many forms. Sexual violence in the form of rape, sexual slavery, forced pregnancy, trafficking, genital mutilation and soliciting of sexual favors, as horrifying as they are, is only one aspect of the affect of war on women. Steep increase in domestic violence due to armed conflicts; the travails of displacement, forced or otherwise; the resultant adverse affects on health and increased exposure to infections and life-threatening diseases such as AIDS/HIV; the burden of additional social and economic responsibilities; and the lingering psychological, physical and social effects even after the end of hostilities are the multidimensional impacts of armed conflicts that are not quite as obvious, but devastating enough to merit closer scrutiny to understand their mechanism of operation. Sexual Violence and Physical Torture The continent of Africa is rife with armed conflicts. Many factors such as bad governance, illiteracy, deplorable economic conditions, political unrest and breakdown of social structures have contributed in fomenting armed struggles on unprecedented scales. Africa is a classic example of a society where the status of women as a subordinate and deprived class has added to their miseries during time so war. The majority of women in Africa is uneducated and live in abject isolation cut off even from all that is happening around them in politics and power play. They are therefore caught completely unawares when armed conflicts erupt. The subordination of women in Africa is accentuated in conflict situations. They are not only used as sexual objects who are to be humiliated and demeaned, but are also tortured and mutilated to deter them from carrying out stereotyped roles that are perceived to go against the interests of the perpetrators. During the documentation that has been carried out in Uganda, Liberia and Sierra Leone, women have testified that rebels cut off their lips, ears and nose giving various reasons for such acts (Ochieng, 2004). The same study also documents an instance in which a father was shot dead by enemy combatants when he refuse do have sexual intercourse with his daughter. The intention in this case was to inflict severe psychological torture on both the father and the daughter as incest is considered a blasphemy in Africa as in the rest of the world at large, and would leave permanent scars on the psyche of individuals and the society. Even when women participate as combatants on their own will, they are expected to submit to the sexual exploitations of their superiors. A United Nations document on the situation in Columbia states that â€Å"the situation of women and girls making part of illegal armed groups continues concerning the Council. Women and girl-combatants were objects of sexual abuse by their superiors in the hierarchy. † (Franco et. al. 2006). Abduction of women during armed conflicts is a practice that has its roots in deep in history. A well-known example is the large group of women who were labeled the ‘comfort women’ in the Far East during the Second World War. Things have not changed much. Only the scale, range and scope have. The sexual violence is not restricted to a particular stage of armed conflict but is widely prevalent in all the stages. If it is exploitation by the same side during the initial stage, the victorious lay their own claim on the womenfolk of the vanquished during the stage of active combat; this is followed by sexual exploitation of displaced women who go from place to place as refugees and are hounded sexually by a host of anti-social elements as well as those who are meant to protect and shelter them. This extends into the peace process and the reconstruction and reintegration stage when women ravaged and left helpless by the experience of war easily succumb to the lure of currying favors in exchange of sex. â€Å"Women are physically and economically forced or left with little choice but to become sex workers or to exchange sex for food, shelter, safe passage or other needs; their bodies become part of a barter system, a form of exchange that buys the necessities of life. † (Rehn & Sirleaf 2001). There have been reports of the situation being attenuated by the arrival of peacekeeping forces when personnel from these forces also indulge in sexually exploiting women in return for food, security, shelter, employment and other favors. The independent study commissioned by the United Nations Development Fund for Women were told by members of the local community in the Kisangani and Goma regions of the Democratic Republic of Congo that peace keepers having sex with local girls and that condoms were lying visibly scattered just outside the UN compounds. It was however the desperate women who took the initiative for such sexual liaisons. Trafficking is another adverse affect that is closely associated with armed conflict. Countries with armed conflict are ideal breeding grounds for trafficking because breakdown in law and order and reduced border controls and policing. Criminal networks of arms and drug dealers that operate in war torn countries easily double up as traffickers in women. The women are taken out to work in illegal factories, as slaves or as prostitutes in brothels in red light areas. Rise in armed conflicts have triggered a simultaneous rise in trafficking throughout the world. Trafficking worldwide grew almost 50 per cent from 1995 to 2000 (Financial Times, March 19, 2001), and the International Organization for Migration (IOM) estimates that as many as 2 million women are trafficked across borders annually. A survey conducted in Cambodia in 1995 revealed that about 31 per cent of the prostitutes in Phnom Penh and 11 other provinces were between the ages of 12 and 17, and had been trafficked out of the conflict-stricken countryside (Human Rights Task Force on Cambodia, 1996). Trafficking in women has assumed alarming proportions in Columbia due to the civil war which has dragged on for decades in the country. It is estimated that around 50,000 women are trafficked out of Columbia every year. Bosnia and Herzegovina in south-east Europe also experience very high trafficking in women due to the same basic reason. Traffickers lure women out of these areas on the pretext of giving them jobs. They are then forced into sexual slavery. The traffickers take away the travel documents of the women so that they are not able to escape. Once they are in the trap it is very difficult for these women to return home to their societies even if they are rescued. Though many family in the war torn countries are desperate enough not to question where the money their daughters send home comes from, they will also not accept the women back if they come to know that they had been working as prostitutes or sex slaves. As a result, the girls go through multiple traumas: first they are separated from home, thereafter they are sexually exploited and brutalized and finally they face rejection from their own families. Trafficking is a vicious trap that leads the women who fall prey to it to ultimate destruction unless there is institutional intervention. Since armed conflict and trafficking go hand in hand, women in trouble-torn regions are always vulnerable to trafficking. Forced Displacement Forced Displacement is actually not an inevitable outcome of all armed conflicts, but it is frequently adopted as a strategy of war to destabilize enemy families and communities, to uproot the enemy so that it is scattered and weakened. Forced displacement is however a â€Å"the clearest violation of human, economic, political and social rights and of the failure to comply with international humanitarian laws† (Moser & Clark, 2001). Though displacement during armed conflict is viewed as a temporary process, examples in countries such as Sudan, Sri Lanka and Somalia show that it could extend into a prolonged affair, with succeeding generations having to stay away from the place of origin. Displacements can have multiple effects on women. For women displacement implies increased difficulties in managing household responsibilities as access to resources is cut off or becomes unavailable. Displacement has also been found to lead to a reversal in roles with women assuming the position of the head of the household. This is very evident in Sudan. Ethnic groups such as the Dinka, Nuer and Nuba have been displaced from their place of origin and face severe marginalization. The women of these communities take on added responsibilities of the missing men. Much of this added responsibility is transferred to younger members of the family, especially young girls. Young girls have to not only do domestic chores, but also look after the children, sick and the elderly. They lose out on valuable study and play time which affects their futures negatively. All displaced people face social exclusion, so do women. Staying in an alien environment without the usual support and protection from the male members of the family can be a very terrifying and psychologically scarring experience. In strife-torn Columbia, displacement has become a perennial problem. An estimated 40 million people have been forced to flee from their homes and seek sanctuary elsewhere. A whooping 80% of these displaced people are women and children (Security Council Report, 1999). This brings into sharp focus the high impact of displacement particularly on women. â€Å"The circumstances are unique in each country, but the stories are similar. In places such as Afghanistan, Angola, Bosnia and Herzegovina, the Republic of Chechnya, Colombia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), East Timor, Guinea, Haiti, Indonesia, Liberia, Sierra Leone, Somalia and in the occupied Palestinian territories – whose people constitute the longest-standing and largest refugee population – women have been forced from their homes and exposed to indiscriminate violence while searching for a safe haven. † (Rehn & Sirleaf 2001). Displaced people face violence and hardship as they search for a safe haven. Women are especially vulnerable in such a situation. While on the run, and even after they have found refuge, women have to suffer the humiliation of rape and other forms of physical violence. In their constant struggle to provide for their families and themselves, they are forced to sell their bodies in exchange of provisions and favours. Again, displacement can be of two types: the refugee who has left the country of origin and crossed international borders, and the Internally Displaced Person or the IDP who has been forced to leave the place of original residence and has moved to a different part or region within the country. While international laws do provide some amount of protection and security to the refugee, such laws are not applicable in case of the IDP. The IDP therefore faces a plight worse than the refugee and is practically left all alone in the fight for survival. Even in the case of the refugee, a lot depends on the willingness of those in power in the host country to allow international agencies to aid or help the refugees. In many cases, armed opposition groups may refuse to provide access to international agencies fearing that their own human rights violations will be exposed. Forced displacement however has some positive effects too for women. When the displaced women takes over the reins of the household, many of the traditional shackles lose their hold on them and they find new avenues for self development and progress. They gain a sense of liberty that they did not have in their conventional male-dominated societies. Displacement also becomes a boon for women when they find refuse in well-established and properly run care centers which provide them adequate training and education to enable them to stand on their own feet. When this happens, the suppressed woman can break free and find her own moorings. Domestic Violence during Conflict That domestic violence increases proportionately with increase in armed conflict is a fact that had not been known until very recently. Conflict attenuates domestic violence in two ways: by breaking down communities and the natural regulatory functions of communities, and by escalating violence in the context of masculine and militarized conflict situations. Conflict leads to imbalances in power relations which in turn escalates domestic violence. Many things contribute to the increase in domestic violence – the availability of weapons, the violence male family members have experienced or meted out, the lack of jobs, shelter, and basic services (Lindsey, 2002). In a conflict situation, men get used to violence either by suffering violence or meting violence to others. This sort of acclimatizes them and makes them more prone to the use of violence. The experience of war changes some man from within so that they do not hesitate to apply violence in the domestic context. Combatants who return home after spending long years in fighting have been found to find it difficult to adjust to peace time. There have been instances when men returning form war have killed their own wives. Studies in Cambodia in the mid-1990s indicated that many women – as many as 75 per cent in one study – were victims of domestic violence, often at the hands of men who have kept the small arms and light weapons they used during the war (Lutz & Elliston, 2002). In the Middle East too, there have been reports of men returning from fighting and using the same tactics of torture used in war on their wives in glaring cases of domestic violence. Israel responded to the second Intifada by imposing restrictions on the movement of Palestinians. This led to unemployment, frustration and overcrowded living conditions. The release has been noticed in the form of increased domestic violence within families, crimes against women within the family. Women were being raped and tortured by the frustrated men. The problem in the case of domestic violence is that there are very few laws to protect women from domestic. Even where such laws have been framed, they are not imposed, especially during periods of conflict. The United Nations itself has only recently woken up to the situation. War and Women’s health War has a profound negative effect on health. The direct impact is the casualties of war. Men and women die in large number in any armed conflict. In the event of continued armed struggles medical systems and facilities tend to break down. The expert’s independent report by Rehn & Sirleaf (2001) had this to report of the casualties of war: â€Å"In 2000 alone, conflict is estimated to have directly resulted in 310,000 deaths, with more than half taking place in sub-Saharan Africa. If the commonly held ratio is accurate – nine indirect deaths for every direct death caused by conflict – then approximately 2. 8 million people died in 2000 of some conflict-related cause. Arguably the figure is much higher. When the direct fatalities are estimated by age and sex, children and adolescents account for a significant proportion of the deaths. The highest mortality rates are among men aged 15 to 44, but a quarter of direct mortality is among women. The greatest number of deaths of women is among those aged 15 to 29; some 25,000 women in this age group died directly of conflict in 2000. The International Rescue Committee has estimated that between August 1998 and April 2001, there were 2. 5 million excess deaths (i. e. , above the number normally expected) in the five eastern provinces of the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), where armed groups have been fighting each other as well as attacking civilians. Only 350,000 of these deaths were directly caused by violence; the majority stemmed from disease and malnutrition. One in eight households had experienced at least one violent death; 40 per cent of these deaths were of women and children. There were more deaths than births in many of the areas studied and, in one area, 75 per cent of the children died before they reached the age of two. † The report speaks volume about the direct casualties that women suffer in armed conflicts. The indirect effects of armed conflicts on the health of women are perhaps more horrendous. The large scale rape and other sexual atrocities on women leaves them exposed to all forms of sexual diseases and infections including AIDS and HIV. Many women who manage to overcome the other travails of war have to finally accept defeat when they learn that they have contacted AIDS at the end of it. There have been instances, especially in the Rwandan armed conflicts when one ethnic community has deliberately tried to infect another ethnic community with AIDS. Epidemics break out in refugee camps claiming thousands of lives. Since the refugee camps house a larger number of women, they are affected the most. Women who have been raped or tortured suffer from mental problems. Unwanted pregnancies and adolescence pregnancies pose considerable threats to the health of women. In places such as Bosnia, Kosovar and Sierra Leone, women faced terrible dilemmas. Would they abort their unwanted babies or would they keep them? A majority of these women chose abortion because they feared rejection if they dared to keep the babies. In Sierra Lone, the matter becomes more complicated because abortions are declared illegal and it costs a lot of hard-earned money to have an abortion. All these have to be seen in the context of the conflict scenario when medical and health systems break down and there are acute shortages of medicines and trained medical personnel. Many women die at child birth due to lack of adequate care. Many babies die at birth leaving their mothers heartbroken. Provisions for Protection The Geneva Conventions of 1949 and its protocols remain the best applicable laws for the protection of women. The customary of international humanitarian laws can also be applied for the protection of women in conditions of armed conflicts. In 1993 and 1994 the Security Council established two ad hoc international criminal tribunals; the first to prosecute serious violations of international humanitarian law committed in the former Yugoslavia, and the second to prosecute similar violations as well as genocide in Rwanda. The statute of the International Criminal Code was adopted in July 1998. All laws include many common clauses that can be effectively used for the protection of women in armed conflicts. These include the clause of non discrimination by which the same protection is to be given both to men and women. The law lays down that both men and women are to be â€Å"treated humanely (†¦) without adverse distinction founded on sex †¦Ã¢â‚¬  Moreover specific protection for women are accorded by Article 14 of the Third Geneva Convention which makes it mandatory that â€Å"women †¦ be treated with all the regard due to their sex. † Considerations for the privacy of women are also taken into account by the laws, so are provisions for expectant mothers. The Human Rights and the Refugee Laws too cover other aspects of protection for women in situations of armed conflict. The crux of the matter however is that the laws are as good as the intentions of those who are responsible for implementing them. The international community has to join hands in taking up the cudgel for women caught up in horrifying situations such as armed conflicts, and they have to take enough women with them to provide the healing touch as representatives of those who have suffered the insufferable. Throughout the ages, women have shown remarkable resilience to the vagaries of armed conflict. It is one war they have to win at any cost.